Electrochemical sensor and integrity tests therefor

ABSTRACT

An electrochemical sensor includes electronic circuitry for automatically performing on a periodic basis, e.g., every 1 to 24 hours, specified integrity tests which verify proper operation of the sensor.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to implantable sensors, and more particularly to monitoring such sensors for proper performance. Even more particularly, the present invention relates to integrity tests that are performed on a regular basis in order to confirm proper sensor operation. A preferred sensor with which the present invention may be used is an implantable glucose sensor.

Implantable sensors are sensors adapted to be implanted within living tissue, e.g., within a living patient. The patient may comprise an animal or a human. Such implantable sensors are typically used to monitor one or more physiological parameters associated with the patient. For example, an implantable sensor may monitor a patient's blood or other body fluids for the presence or absence of a specific substance. Other implantable sensors may monitor the patient's body temperature. While a preferred sensor for use with the present invention comprises an implantable glucose sensor, or groups of glucose sensors, it is to be understood that the invention may be used with any type of implantable sensor(s). It is also to be understood that the principles underlying operation of an implantable sensor apply equally well to any sensor that is to remain unattended and submerged or immersed within a hostile environment, e.g., within a saline solution such as seawater, for a prolonged period of time. Thus, although the sensors described herein find particular applicability to sensors adapted to be implanted within living tissue, and the description is directed to such implantable sensors, the invention may also be applied to remote sensors of any kind that must be immersed unattended in a hostile environment for long periods of time.

In general, an implantable sensor may be used to provide valuable data that assists in diagnosing or treating an illness, or to help maintain or sustain a given level of physiological, chemical, or other activity or inactivity. In the case of glucose sensors, which are typically used with some type of insulin-delivery system in order to treat diabetics, the glucose sensors provide invaluable data needed to maintain the concentration of glucose within the patient at an acceptable level. Such glucose senors must perform properly; otherwise, false data may be provided. Such false data (if acted upon) could result in the administration of an inappropriate amount of insulin, leading to death or serious injury. There is thus a critical need in the art for a sensor which is reliable and which can be monitored for proper function on a regular basis. Likewise, there is a need for a glucose sensor which must work properly within certain specific limits of accuracy.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The above and other needs are addressed by the present invention which comprises an implantable sensor that includes integral means for automatically performing a series of integrity tests that test the sensor for proper performance, and which thereby ensure that the sensor is correctly and accurately performing its intended monitoring function(s).

In accordance with one embodiment of the invention, an electrochemical sensor is provided that has an hermetically sealed portion and a non-hermetically sealed portion. The hermetically sealed portion contains electronic circuitry; and the non-hermetically sealed portion has at least one electrode associated therewith. The electronic circuitry includes means for measuring a specified parameter within body fluids or tissue to which the at least one electrode is exposed, and means for performing at least one integrity test to verify proper operation of the sensor. Preferably, the means for performing the integrity test comprises means for automatically performing the integrity test upon occurrence of a specified event, such as the passage of time in accordance with a prescribed schedule (e.g., once every hour, or once every day), or the sensing of a parameter that is out of tolerance.

A preferred embodiment of the invention comprises an implantable glucose sensor. Such glucose sensor includes, inter alia, electronic circuitry for automatically performing on a periodic basis, e.g., every 1 to 24 hours, specified integrity tests which verify the proper operation of the glucose sensor. The basic structure and operating characteristics of a preferred implantable glucose sensor adapted for use with the present invention are described generally in U.S. Pat. No. 5,497,772, incorporated herein by reference. Important features and enhancements of such sensor are further described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/928,867, filed Sep. 12, 1997; U.S. Pat. No. 5,917,346, filed Sep. 12, 1997; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/928,871, filed Sep. 12, 1997 U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/954,166 filed concurrently herewith; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/953,817, filed concurrently herewith; all of which are assigned to the same assignee as the present application, and all of which patent applications are also incorporated herein by reference.

The preferred glucose sensor is adapted for insertion into the venous system of a patient where it is exposed to the patient's blood, or into other areas of the patient where it is exposed to other tissue or fluids of the patient. Once implanted, the sensor produces electrical signals, i.e., an electrical current, that is related to the sensed glucose concentration.

Most implantable sensors have one or more electrodes adapted to contact the body tissue or fluids within which the sensor is implanted. It is through such electrodes that the sensor is able to sense the particular parameter it is designed to sense.

For example, as described in the above-referenced patent and patent applications, the preferred glucose sensor includes several electrodes, e.g., two working electrodes (W1 and W2), at least one reference electrode (REF1), and a counter electrode (CNTR). Some of the electrodes, e.g., the working electrodes and the counter electrode, are made or coated from platinum, while the reference electrode is typically made from or coated with silver chloride. Some of the electrodes are surrounded by a prescribed enzyme, typically in the form of a gel. A preferred enzyme used for this purpose is glucose oxidase (referred to herein as "GOX"). All of the electrodes are further submersed in a suitable conductive fluid, e.g., a saline solution.

The electrodes of the preferred glucose sensor are typically formed on one side of a substrate, with membranes being formed to confine the conductive fluid and/or GOX in the areas needed to expose the electrodes. On the other side of the substrate, electronic circuitry is formed that connects the electrodes appropriately so that the desired electrochemical activity can be monitored and used as a measure of the concentration of glucose to which the sensor is exposed. Such circuitry includes not only circuits that monitor the sensed glucose concentration (which is done, as explained below, by monitoring the current flow between the electrodes, which provides a measure of the oxygen concentration, which oxygen concentration in the presence of an enzyme is inversely proportional to the concentration of glucose), but also includes data processing circuitry to preliminary process the sensed data (e.g., the measured current) and transmit it over a two-line connection cable with a controller circuit to which the sensor is connected. The circuitry is hermetically sealed, and non-exposed portions of the electrodes are similarly sealed under a coating of aluminum oxide or alumina or other suitable insulator. Portions of the sensor are also insulated in epoxy. In a preferred embodiment, several, e.g., three, such sensors may be daisy-chained together, each operating independently of the others, yet each being in close proximity with the others so that measured data from different ones of the sensors can be compared.

In order for the sensor to perform its intended function, it is important that the electrodes and circuitry all operate as designed, and that the various insulative material or coatings used with the sensor, e.g., alumina, zerconia, wax and/or epoxy, provide the needed insulation and/or sealing properties.

In accordance with one aspect of the invention, special test circuitry is provided as part of the sensor circuitry to periodically check the integrity of the critical sensor functions and/or parameters. When necessary or desired, the results of the integrity tests are then reported by generating appropriate data signals that provide an indication of the results of such integrity tests, e.g., that warn when a given test has failed, and/or that provide test data from which a quantitative measure of the test results can be obtained.

In a preferred configuration, a plurality of sensors, e.g., three sensors, are daisy-chained together and implanted within a patient in the same general area, i.e., in the same tissue or body fluids. Each sensor operates independently of the others. If all the sensors are functioning properly, then the output data obtained from each sensor should be approximately the same. The data sensed by each sensor may thus be used as a cross-check against the data sensed by the other sensors. In a similar manner, the information obtained from the periodic integrity tests may be regularly compared and checked with the corresponding integrity test information obtained from the other sensors of the same group of chained-together sensors. In this manner, the overall integrity of the integrity tests is itself checked periodically.

It is thus an object of the invention to provide, within an implantable sensor, e.g., of the general type disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,497,772, or a similar implantable electrochemical sensor, a means for automatically verifying the integrity of the sensor on a periodic basis.

It is a feature of the invention to provide electrical/electronic circuits included as part of the sensor circuitry that carry out a series of integrity tests on the sensor on a scheduled basis, and that report the results of such tests by way of test data that can be monitored over time and/or compared with similar test data obtained from other implanted sensors.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The above and other aspects, features and advantages of the present invention will be more apparent from the following more particular description thereof, presented in conjunction with the following drawings and Appendix wherein:

FIG. 1 shows a plurality of sensors implanted within body tissue and/or fluids connected to a sensor controller;

FIG. 2A is an electrical diagram of a simplified glucose sensor;

FIG. 2B is a graph that qualitatively depicts the relationship between electrical current delivered to the electrodes of the glucose sensor of FIG. 2A and the voltage applied between the electrodes, and how such relationship varies as a function of oxygen content;

FIG. 2C is a graph that qualitatively depicts the approximately linear relationship that exists at a fixed electrode voltage between the electrical current passing through the electrode of the glucose sensor of FIG. 2A and the oxygen concentration;

FIG. 3 shows an electrical schematic diagram that depicts the use of two working electrodes within a glucose sensor, one to provide a measure of the oxygen that reacts with the glucose in the blood (and thereby provides a measure of the glucose in the blood), and another to provide a reference baseline measurement of the background blood oxygen concentration (which measurement is used for compensation);

FIG. 4A depicts a partial exploded view of a glucose sensor of a type with which the present invention may be used;

FIG. 4B depicts a sectional end view of the sensor of FIG. 4A;

FIG. 4C shows a bottom view of the sensor of FIG. 4A;

FIG. 4D is a block diagram that illustrates the manner in which several, e.g., three, glucose sensors may be daisy chained together and connected to a controller;

FIG. 5 conceptually illustrates the various components of the glucose sensor and their inter-relationship relative to integrity tests that may be performed by the present invention;

FIG. 6 is a block diagram of the circuits included within the sensor that are used to perform the integrity tests of the invention;

FIG. 7 is a flow diagram that depicts one manner in which the preferred sensor makes a glucose measurement; and

FIGS. 8A, 8B and 8C are representative calibration curves that are used in carrying out the measurement method illustrated in FIG. 7.

Appendix A illustrates various glucose calibration algorithms that may be used as part of the present invention.

Corresponding reference characters indicate corresponding components throughout the several views of the drawings.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The following description is of the best mode presently contemplated for carrying out the invention. This description is not to be taken in a limiting sense, but is made merely for the purpose of describing the general principles of the invention. The scope of the invention should be determined with reference to the claims.

Turning first to FIG. 1, there is shown a schematic diagram of a plurality of implantable sensors 10a, . . . 10n, implanted within body fluids or tissue 12 or other desired area. The sensors 10 may comprise any type of implantable sensor, e.g., a temperature sensor, an oxygen sensor, a CO₂ sensor, a glucose sensor, a pH sensor, a salinity sensor, or the like. Each sensor 10 typically includes at least one electrode 14 adapted to interact with or sense some prescribed substance that may be present within (or absent from) the tissue 12 to varying degrees. To this end, each sensor 10 operates independently of the other sensors being used, yet each is implanted within the same general area of the tissue or fluids 12.

It is noted that some types of sensors, e.g, a temperature sensor or an activity (motion) sensor, need not necessarily have an electrode 14 that is exposed to the tissue or fluids 12 in order to perform their sensing function. For purposes of the broad aspects of the present invention, it will thus be appreciated that what is important is not whether the sensor has one or more electrodes, but rather that the sensor be capable of accurately sensing a parameter of interest, and that the integrity of such sensing be regularly checked or verified.

The sensors 10 are connected to a sensor controller 16 by way of a suitable coupling cable 18. The controller 16 may or may not be implantable. If the controller 16 is not implanted, then appropriate means are employed, as is known in the art, along the length of the cable 18 to transcutaneously interface with implanted sensors 10 so that appropriate signal communication may take place between the implanted sensors 10 and the controller 16. A common transcutaneous interface technique known in the art is inductive coupling, using both implanted and external coils. Alternatively, optical, magnetic, or other types of signal transmission could be used to achieve a transcutaneous signal link through the cable 18.

In accordance with the present invention, integrity tests are performed at specified intervals, e.g., periodically, at least once every 1-24 hours, or at other specified intervals, such as whenever a measured parameter is out of tolerance, that check the performance and basic operation of the sensors 10. This is done to safeguard the patient from a malfunctioning sensor, which (depending upon the function of the sensor) could prove very dangerous to the patient. Alternatively, where the sensors are implanted or positioned in a remote, inaccessible area, e.g., deep in the ocean or within a sealed saline solution over a long period of time, such integrity tests, performed at specified intervals, provide confidence in the data produced by the sensors.

The integrity tests may be initiated from the controller 16, or may be initiated from circuitry that forms an integral part of the sensor 10. When the integrity tests are performed, the results of such tests are transmitted to the controller 16, where the controller analyzes such results and/or makes the results available (e.g., through an appropriate telecommunicative link, such as an inductive, magnetic, rf, or optical link) to an external or other device (such as an external programmer) adapted to display or communicate the test results to the patient, medical personnel, or others who are monitoring the test data. The use of external programmers to interface with implantable devices is well known in the art, as evident from, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,609,606, incorporated herein by reference.

Various types and kinds of integrity tests may be performed in connection with the sensors 10 in accordance with the present invention. One basic integrity test that may be made involves monitoring the sensor output signal, i.e., that signal which provides a measure of whatever it is that the sensor is measuring, from each of a plurality of sensors located within the same general tissue area, to see if there is a consensus between such measurements. That is, assume there are five identical sensors all implanted within the same general tissue area, and all configured to measure the same substance within that tissue area. If all five sensors provide approximately the same measurement data, e.g., within about 20% of each other, then that indicates--i.e., provides integrity test data--that all five sensors are performing properly. Should four of the sensors agree, and one disagree, then that indicates the disagreeing sensor is likely malfunctioning. As a result of such finding, all sensor data subsequently obtained from such malfunctioning sensor may be ignored, or alternatively the sensor may be disabled.

In a similar manner, if three sensors are used, a periodic or other scheduled or triggered check of the output signal from all three sensors may reveal agreement (consensus) or lack thereof. If there is agreement, then all sensors are presumed to be operating correctly. If two sensors agree, but one does not, then the one that does not agree is likely not functioning properly. If all three sensors disagree, then that could trigger a need for recalibration, or other appropriate step, to determine which sensor is functioning properly.

Other types of integrity tests that may be performed, depending upon the capabilities of the sensors 10, include impedance (e.g., resistance) and/or voltage measurements, e.g., measuring the impedance and/or voltage from the electrode 14 of one sensor 10a, to a reference electrode, e.g., at the controller 16 (if implanted), or at some other location. Alternatively, the impedance and/or voltage may be measured between the electrode 14 of one sensor 10a and another sensor 10n.

As indicated, a preferred sensor 10 with which the present invention may be used, is a glucose sensor 52 of the type that is described in the above-referenced '772 U.S. patent, or the above-reference patent applications. This preferred glucose sensor 52 is electrically depicted in FIG. 2A. Such sensor 52 is based on the "enzyme electrode" principle wherein an enzyme reaction and an electrochemical detector are utilized to measure the concentration of glucose. More particularly, the sensor includes at least three electrodes: a first working electrode W1, a collector electrode C, and a reference electrode R, submersed in a suitable conductive liquid 54, such as a saline solution of water (H₂ O), confined by a first membrane 55. A fixed trim voltage V is applied between the electrode R and the electrodes W1 and C. A suitable enzyme E is immobilized in a second membrane 56 so as to surround the first working electrode W1. For a glucose sensor, the enzyme E is preferably glucose oxidase (GO).

During operation, when the sensor is implanted in the patient's tissue, e.g., blood, the enzyme E is exposed to the glucose and oxygen present in the tissue. Both the glucose and oxygen diffuse from the tissue into the membranes 55 and 56 whereat, in the presence of the enzyme E, they react to produce gluconic acid and H₂ O₂. The rate of the reaction is directly related to the concentration of glucose in the tissue and is monitored by an electrochemical oxygen detector made up of the electrodes W1, R and C, a current source 58 and a voltage source 60 (FIG. 2A). The working electrode W1 and the counter electrode C are preferably made or coated from platinum (Pt). The reference electrode R is typically made form or coated with silver chloride. When a trim voltage V is placed across the electrodes R and W1, as well as across R and C, a current I tends to flow between the electrodes C and W1. (Assuming the voltage source is an ideal voltage source, with infinite impedance, no current flows through the reference electrode R.) When the above chemical reaction occurs, oxygen is consumed at the working electrode W1. The amount of oxygen remaining can be determined as a function of the amount of current flowing through the working electrode W1. More particularly, it can be shown that the relationship between the current (I) that flows and the trim voltage (V) varies as a function of the oxygen concentration as shown qualitatively in FIG. 2B. For a high concentration of oxygen (O₂), a curve 62 establishes the relationship between I and V. For a low concentration of O₂, a lower curve 64 establishes the relationship between I and V. For each value of O₂ concentration between the high concentration curve 62 and the low concentration curve 64, another curve (intermediate the curves 62 and 64) establishes the current-voltage relationship, with each curve of the family corresponding to a different O₂ concentration.

To measure the O₂ concentration using a circuit such as is shown in FIG. 2A, all that need be done is to force the trim voltage V to be a fixed value V_(R), where V_(R) typically ranges between 0.3 and 0.7 volts, e.g., 0.5 volts. This is done by adjusting the current I until the desired trim voltage V_(R) is obtained. At the voltage V_(R), the relationship between the current I and the oxygen O₂ is substantially linear, as depicted qualitatively in FIG. 2C. Thus, using a sensor such as is functionally depicted in FIG. 2A, the amount of oxygen remaining at the working electrode W1 is simply a function of the current I required to force the trim voltage V to V_(R).

Since the oxygen detector is monitoring the oxygen not consumed by the enzyme reaction, the detector signal, i.e., the current I, is inversely related to the glucose concentration. The more glucose in the tissue, e.g., the blood, the less oxygen will be detected by the oxygen detector with the enzyme present.

To improve the accuracy of the oxygen determination made by the detector of FIG. 2A, and in particular to allow compensation for changes in the background blood or tissue oxygen concentration, a second working electrode W2 is employed at a location in the sensor that is not surrounded by the enzyme E, as shown in FIG. 3. As such, the electrode W2 simply detects background oxygen concentration (not oxygen consumed by the enzyme reaction), and thus provides a means of compensating the oxygen measurement made using the first working electrode W1 for background oxygen.

As seen in FIG. 3, a first adjustable current source is realized from an operational amplifier 68 and a feedback loop 70. A second adjustable current source is likewise realized form an operational amplifier 72 and a feedback loop 74. Both the first and second current sources apply their respective currents to the collector electrode C. A measurement of the current 11 flowing through the first working electrode W1 is provided by current sensing element 71. Similarly,, a measurement of the current I2 flowing through the second working electrode W2 is provided by current sensing element 75.

In operation, the trim voltage V is set to the desired fixed trim value V_(R), and the currents I1 and I2 are measured. The current I1 provides a measure of the oxygen remaining at the working electrode W1, which in turn provides an inverse measure of the glucose concentration in the blood or other tissue. The current I2 provides a measure of the background oxygen in the blood or tissue, and thus provides a means for compensating the I1 measurement for background oxygen variations. The absolute quantitative value of the glucose level is determined by comparison of the two detector signals, i.e., the two currents, I1 and I2, and by reference to a previously determined calibration. The basic calibration technique is described below in conjunction with the flow chart of FIG. 7 and the calibration curves of FIGS. 8A, 8B and 8C. More detailed information relative to the various calibration algorithms that may be used are described in Appendix A. Appropriate processing to obtain such quantitative measure of the glucose concentration is performed by appropriate processing circuits, typically included within the controller 16 or an external programmer.

Turning next to FIGS. 4A, 4B, 4C and 4D, additional details are provided concerning the preferred manner of making a sensor 10 in accordance with the invention. Further details may be found in the patent applications referenced above. Basically, the sensor includes a substrate 100 on which an integrated circuit (IC) chip 102 is mounted and connected to selected other electrical components, such as a capacitor 104, via conductive traces that are deposited or etched on the surface of the chip 100. A suitable cover 106 fits over the electrical components 102, 104, and connective traces, and is hermetically sealed to the substrate 100 so as to form an hermetically sealed portion of the sensor 10. Electrical contact with the circuits and components within the hermetically sealed portion is made via pads 108 and 110 and 109 and 111 located on respective ends of the substrate 100. These pads have conductive traces connected thereto that tunnel into the hermetically sealed portion through the ceramic substrate, in the manner taught in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/515,559, filed Aug. 16, 1995, incorporated herein by reference. Essentially, these traces pass vertically down into the substrate 100, then horizontally across the substrate to a point underneath the hermetically sealed portion, and then vertically back up into the hermetically sealed portion.

In a similar manner, conductive traces pass through the substrate 100 from the IC chip side of the substrate to an electrode side 112 of the substrate, which (as drawn in FIG. 4B) is the underneath or bottom side of the substrate 100. Each of the traces that pass through the substrate from the IC side to the electrode side do so in a stair-step manner, as illustrated in FIG. 4B by the trace 114, so as to preserve the seal of the hermetic portion. That is, there are no traces that tunnel through the substrate which do so in a single vertical or straight segment. Rather, there is always at least one vertical segment connected to at least one horizontal segment, as taught in the above-referenced patent application (Ser. No. 08/515,559). In this manner, the stair-step tunneling traces 114 function as electrical feedthroughs into the hermetically sealed portion of the sensor.

On the electrode side 112 of the substrate 100, a plurality of electrodes are arranged in a suitable pattern, as illustrated in FIG. 4C. These electrodes may include, e.g., a first working electrode W1, a second working electrode W2, a counter electroce CNTR, a first reference electrode REF1, a second reference electrode REF2, and a platinum black electrode Pt, and may be arranged in various patterns. As taught in the '772 patent and the above-reference patent applications, these electrodes are all electrically insulated from each other by placing a layer of insulation, such as alumina, between the electrodes. A thin inner sheath of silicone rubber then covers the substrate electrodes, and includes a thin pocket or space above the electrodes wherein a suitable conductive fluid, such as PHEMA, is maintained. This thin inner sheath is covered by a much thicker sheath 116, also made of silicone rubber or an equivalent material. A pocket, or window, is formed within this seath 116 above the working electrode W1, wherein the GOX is placed.

For purposes of the present invention, the important feature of the sensor 10 is that each of the plurality of electrodes on the electrode side (which comprises the non-hermetic portion of the sensor) of the substrate 100 are electrically connected with the hermetically-sealed circuitry on the IC side of the substrate 100.

A preferred arrangement of the sensors 10 is to connect a plurality of such sensors in a daisy chain, as depicted in FIG. 4D. In FIG. 4D, three sensors 10a, 10b and 10c are thus connected in series, although this is only exemplary. Any number of sensors could be connected in this manner. Advantageously, the pads 108, 110, 109, 111 associated with each sensor, facilitate such daisy-chain connection. Moreover, as described in the above-referenced patent application Ser. No. 08/928,867, such connection may be effectuated using just two conductors 118 and 120, yet control commands and data may still be readily transferred between the sensors 10a, 10b and 10c and/or a controller 16. It is noted that the two conductors 118 and 120 are insulated conductors, and that at the point where they bond with the pads 108 and 110, or 109 and 111, they are covered with epoxy, or other suitable insulator, but such covering does not create an hermetic seal. That is, there will be some leakage to the pads 108-111. However, as explained in the above reference patent application, that is one of the advantages of the present sensor--its ability to function even in a leaky or noisy environment.

Turning next to FIG. 5, there is shown a schematic representation of the preferred sensor 10, including the various electrodes located on the non-hermetically sealed portion on the electrode side 112 of the substrate 100, and the IC chip 102 located on the hermetically sealed portion of the substrate 100 (the other side of the substrate 100), and the stair-step feedthrough connections 114 that electrically connect the two portions to each other. The IC chip 102 may include various types of circuits for processing and handling measured signals obtained via the electrodes or otherwise generated or sensed within the sensor 10, and/or for decoding and responding to various commands received through the connections 108, 110 from a controller 16. The types of circuits that are used in connection with a preferred glucose sensor are fully described in the previously referenced patent applications. These circuits include, e.g., a line interface circuit, a low power rectifier circuit, a current-to-frequency converter circuit, multiplexer circuits, decoder/encoder circuits, and the like.

For purposes of the present invention, however, the types of circuits that need be included within the IC chip 102, or otherwise available within the sensor 10, are shown in the block diagram of FIG. 6. It is recognized that these circuits, as shown in FIG. 6, may not represent all the circuits that may be included within the sensor 10. This is because the types of circuits used with the sensor 10 will be a function of what kind of sensor the sensor 10 is. For purposes of the present invention, however, it does not matter what type of sensor the sensor 10 is. All that matters is that the sensor include some means of checking its own performance, e.g., some means for performing one or more integrity tests, and then communicating the results of such test to a user or otherwise using the results to confirm proper operation of the sensor. Hence, all that is shown in FIG. 6 are those kinds of circuits that would most likely be needed in order to practice the integrity tests of the present invention. It is noted that in the preferred implantable glucose sensor, as described, e.g., in the above-reference patents and patent applications, that circuits are included on-board the sensor chip, in one form or another, which allow the measurement functions described in connection with FIG. 6 to be carried out.

In FIG. 6, the dotted line 122 represents the boundaries of the hermetically sealed portion of the sensor. Not included within the hermetically sealed portion 122 are a plurality of electrodes W1, CNTR, W2 and REF1, and connection pads 108, 110, connected to conductive leads 118 and 120. The number and types of electrodes is exemplary. For purposes of the present invention, there will typically be at least one electrode not included within the hermetically-sealed portion 122, and there could be more electrodes than is shown in FIG. 6.

The circuits included within the hermetically sealed portion 122 include a multiplexer (MUX) 124 that selectively connects any two of the electrodes external to the hermetically-sealed portion or any additional sensing element 126 or reference points 110, 128 within the hermetically-sealed portion to two measurement points 130A and 130B. A current measurement device 132 (e.g., a current meter), a voltage measurement device 134 (e.g., a voltage meter), and a variable voltage source 136 may then be selectively connected to the measurement points 130A and 130B through a connection matrix 131. That is, with the connection matrix 131, the voltage between any two reference points, e.g., between any two electrodes selected by the MUX 124, and/or the current flowing between any two reference points selected by the MUX 124, while a specified potential is applied between the selected reference points, may be measured.

The measurement circuits shown in FIG. 6 are controlled by a control circuit 138. The control circuit, in turn, receives commands from, or sends data to, a decoder/encoder circuit 140. The decoder/encoder 140 is coupled to the input lines 118 and 120 (which are connected to a suitable controller 16--see FIG. 1 or FIG. 4D) through an interface circuit 142. All of these circuits may be as described in the previously-referenced patent applications, or may be of any other suitable design. None of these circuits, per se, comprise the present invention. Rather, they are simply exemplary tools that may be used to help carry out the invention.

The on-board control circuit 138 may be, for example, a microprocessor circuit, including memory circuits for storing an operating program that controls which integrity tests are performed and in what sequence. Alternatively, the control circuit 138 may be a simple state machine, controlled by command signals received from the external controller 16, in which case control of the integrity tests can be made from the external controller 16.

With reference now to both FIGS. 5 and 6, the integrity tests that may be performed as part of the present invention will be described. In general, such tests include measuring the voltage and/or current that flows between any two points, which two points may comprise two external points (not within the hermetically sealed portion 122), or an external point and an internal point, such as the reference point 128 (which may comprise, e.g, a ground or common reference point). With such voltage and/or current measurements, the impedance (resistance) between the selected two points, e.g., electrodes, can be determined. The impedance measurements, in turn, provide valuable information regarding whether the sensor 10 is functioning properly. Moreover, by changing the voltage potential that is applied between the two points being monitored, various operating points of the circuitry within the sensor IC chip 102 may be obtained and analyzed, thereby confirming, e.g., that the circuits are operating in accordance with a desired design. For example, for the preferred glucose sensor, the basic operating curves shown in FIG. 2B may be confirmed, thereby confirming the accuracy of the measurement relationship shown in FIG. 2C.

In addition to current, voltage, and impedance measurements, other important measurements can also be made. For example, the internal sensor 126 may comprise, in one embodiment, a temperature sensor that provides an electrical signal indicative of the temperature on the sensor chip. Simply conveying the temperature measurement could serve as an integrity test because if the temperature is out of an anticipated range, then that could provide an indication that something is not working correctly within the sensor. In another embodiment, the internal sensor 126 may comprise an motion or activity sensor, so that if a signal was received that did not agree with a known and anticipated pattern of motion or activity, that too could serve as a valuable indicator of whether the sensor is performing as designed. Still further, the reference point 128, or another internal reference point, could be coupled to the internal voltage source 136 so that the voltage potential of such source could be measured. Again, being able to periodically or regularly measure the voltage potential available within the sensor could provide valuable information regarding whether the sensor is performing as designed. Additionally, the reference point 128 may be connected to the case of the sensor, or the case of the sensor may itself comprise a reference electrode.

When the sensor 10 comprises the preferred glucose sensor, the desirable sensor parameters to monitor may include:

(1) verifying the platinum electrode current stability for oxygen monitoring, and for current sinking;

(2) checking the silver chloride to gel voltage stability;

(3) checking the integrity of the gel pH;

(4) checking the electrical conductivity of the saline solution;

(5) verifying the integrity of the aluminum oxide and/or other, e.g., epoxy, insulation;

(6) determining the GOX activity level; and

(7) checking the accuracy of the oxygen sensor.

Advantageously, these sensor parameters can be monitored, on a regular basis, e.g., one every 1-24 hours (or in accordance with another desired schedule) as controlled by an on-board microprocessor or equivalent control circuit (or by a microprocessor or equivalent within the remote controller 16) by performing the integrity tests described below.

First, the leakage current can be measured between e.g., between the outside body solution and an uninsulated platinum black electrode or other reference point that is exposed to the body solution. With reference to FIG. 5, for example, such measurement could be made by measuring the resistance between the case cover 106 (connected through point 128 to the MUX 124, FIG. 6) and each of the pads 108 and 110. Alternatively, an additional uninsulated Pt.- Black electrode could be included on the substrate 100. When performing such measurement, any signals being transmitted over the coupling wires 118 and 120 would be stopped for a prescribed time period Ti, e.g., 100 msec, and the leakage current between the pads 108 or 110 and the case 106, or between pads 108 and 110 (or between pads 109 and 111, FIG. 4A) could be measured. This leakage current should be within a certain range, as a function of the conductivity of the saline solution within which the sensor is immersed and other factors. A typical value of leakage current might be 100 μA.

Next, the leakage between any of the electrodes, e.g., the electrodes W1, W2, CNTR, REF1, REF2 and the conductors (pads 108, 110) may be measured. This measurement could also be measured between any of the electrodes and the case, if the case is connected or connectable to the measurement circuitry. This leakage current should be very small, i.e., it should not exceed I₀, where I₀ is on the order of 1 pA. If the leakage current does exceed I₀, i.e., if the measured leakage current is between about 1 pA-1000 pA, then that indicates the sensor's performance is borderline, and there could be a problem for statistical purposes. If the measured leakage current is within the range of, e.g., 10 nA-1μA, then that means the sensor will provide erroneous values.

Next, a resistance measurement may be made between any two electrodes. For example, the resistance between the W1 and W2 electrodes effectively measures the resistance of the PHEMA (or conductive solution that is confined to the region of these electrodes). This resistance should be less than about 1000 ohms. If the resistance is in the range of 10K-100K ohms, then that means the sensor readings would not be accurate.

As a further integrity test, the flatness of the current-voltage curve (see FIG. 2B) may be checked. This is done, e.g., by measuring the current that flows between the W1 and W2 electrodes for at least two different reference voltages. Preferably, three points are taken, a center reference voltage, corresponding to V_(R) in FIG. 2B, of, e.g., 0.5 volts is applied and the current flow is measured. Then, the reference voltage is varied ±0.1 volts, and additional currents are measured at each point. From these measurements, the slope of the I-V curve can be checked. It should be relatively flat, as qualitatively shown in FIG. 2B. If the slope is <2%, then that is good. If the slope is linear to zero, that is bad. That is, once the plateau shown in FIG. 2B ceases to exist, the sensor is not able to perform its oxygen-sensing function. As another criteria, the slope of the I-V curve in its flat region may be measured when the sensor is first manufactured. This initial slope value can then be saved as a reference value. If a subsequent measurement of the slope is more than 20% different than the reference value, then that indicates the sensor is bad.

Another integrity test is to check the integrity of the insulation layer that is used to separate the electrodes. As explained above, this insulation layer is placed between the electrodes, but does not cover these electrodes. The test may be performed by placing a separate electrode, e.g., REF2, on the electrode surface 112 and completely coating this electrode with the insulation material, e.g., alumina Al₂ O₃. Then, the impedance between this covered electrode and any other electrode or reference point can be measured. If the insulation layer is intact, then this impedance should be very high, near infinite impedance.

An additional integrity test is to measure the CNTR to REF1 potential. For a given O₂ concentration level, the CNTR-REF1 voltage should be stable. No drift should be present. Thus, this measurement should be taken several times in succession over a relatively short time period (to assure the O₂ level does not significantly change) and these successive measurement values should then be compared to each other. Any change more than about ±20% would indicate that there is a problem with the sensor.

An important integrity test, as has previously been mentioned, is to compare the measured O₂ values from a plurality of sensors, e.g., three sensors, that are implanted within the same general tissue area. These measurements should all agree with each other within an acceptable tolerance, e.g., ±10%. If there is disagreement, then appropriate decision steps are taken to identify the erroneous sensor, e.g., majority rules. If all sensors disagree, then recalibration is called for. As a related integrity test, the calculated glucose concentration for each of the plurality of sensors can also be compared.

Yet another integrity test that can be performed is to measure the open circuit voltage between specified electrodes. For example, an open circuit voltage can be measured between a separate platinum black electrode and the reference electrode. With respect to FIG. 5, this means measuring the open circuit voltage between the Pt.-Black electrode and the REF1 electrode.

This voltage should be zero. Similarly, the open circuit voltage between the electrodes W2 and CNTR can be measured. It, too, should be zero for 0 current flow. Likewise, the open circuit voltage between W1-CNTR should be zero for 0 current flow. A set voltage, e.g., V_(R), should exist between W2-REF1 and W1-REF1.

In general, then, the integrity tests for the preferred glucose sensor include current leakage tests, resistance tests, voltage tests, and I-V characteristic tests (curve flatness). Experience indicates that the results of these integrity tests, e.g., the amount of leakage current that occurs, will start to increase or significantly change from prior values before major sensor problems occur. It is therefore important to perform these integrity tests on a regular basis, e.g., once every day, while the sensor is within the patient. A good time to perform the tests is at night when the patient is sleeping and when the O₂ concentration is stable.

Data communication between the implanted sensor and the controller 16 may occur using any suitable type of modulation scheme and/or carrier transmission system, as is known in the art. One type of data transmission scheme is as disclosed in applicants copending patent application Ser. No. 08/928,867, filed Sep. 12, 1997, previously incorporated herein by reference.

The results of the sensor tests, if problematic, may be communicated through the controller 16 (see FIG. 1) to appropriate medical personnel. Preferably, an appropriate message is communicated to the patient, as soon as the external programmer is coupled to the system, or through other appropriate signaling or communication means, to inform the patient that he/she should contact his/her doctor or clinic as soon as is reasonably possible. The patient need not be told the exact nature of the problem identified by the integrity tests, only that he/she should contact his medical doctor or clinic for evaluation. The doctor or other medical personnel could then evaluate the data and make a determination if a true problem exists, and if so, what type of corrective action, if any, is needed.

One type of corrective action that may be needed, either on an automatically-scheduled basis or as the need arises, is a calibration or recalibration of the sensor(s). Appropriate algorithms for calibrating or recalibration the preferred glucose sensors are shown in Appendix A, incorporated herein by reference.

Closely related to calibration of the sensor(s), where the sensor(s) comprise a glucose sensor of the type disclosed in the referenced patent applications, is the manner in which the glucose concentration is determined using the sensor(s). The basic approach for determining glucose concentration is illustrated in the flow diagram of FIG. 7. As previously described, the glucose sensor determines the amount of glucose present in the tissue being monitored by measuring the amount of oxygen in the presence of a prescribed enzyme. The sensor provides, as an output signal, an electrical current. In the preferred embodiment, two electrical currents are provided as the output signal of the sensor. A first electrical current flows through the first working electrode W1 (the one which is surrounded by GOX, or other suitable enzyme) and provides a measure of the oxygen at the first working electrode (which oxygen amount is inversely related to the glucose that is present). A second electrical current flows through the second working electrode W2 and provides a measure of the background oxygen present at the second electrode W2.

With reference to FIG. 7, it is seen the two currents used to measure the glucose level may be designated as I_(W1) (t) and I_(W2) (t). In FIG. 7, there currents are identified as "Input" currents (even though they are also output currents from the sensor), because they serve as the starting point, or "input", in order to derive the glucose concentration.

As shown in FIG. 7, the second current, I_(W2) (t), is measured and the value is applied (see block 150 of FIG. 7) to an appropriate conversion or transfer curve, e.g., of the type illustrated in FIG. 2C or an equivalent (e.g., a look-up table would serve the same function) in order to convert the measured current to a measure of oxygen. An example conversion curve used for this purpose is shown in FIG. 8A. For example, with reference to FIG. 8A, if the current I_(W2) (t) is 200 nA, then that translates to a background oxygen concentration, PO₂, of about 7.8%. This percent oxygen can then be converted, as required, to a measure of the background oxygen concentration. CO₂ (t), by knowing the volume and pressure associated with the sample size. The units of the background oxygen concentration CO₂ (t) are typically expressed in mg/dl at a specified pressure (mmHg).

Once the background oxygen concentration PO₂ is determined, this value may be used to compensate for the measurement taken at the enzyme-surrounded electrode W1 see block 152 of FIG. 7). To achieve this compensation, the value of PO₂ from FIG. 8A is taken to a second transfer curve, e.g., as shown in FIG. 8B, to determine a corresponding first current value, I_(W1) (t_(GLUCOSE) =0). For example, if P0₂ is 7.8%, then from FIG. 8B it is seen that I_(W1) (t_(GLUCOSE) =0) is about 180 nA.

A ratio of the two current values, the determined I_(W1) (t_(GLUCOSE) =0) and the measured I_(W1) (t) , is next determined (block 154 of FIG. 7). By way of example, if I_(W1) (t) is measured to be 150 nA (I_(W1) (t) should always be less than I_(W1) (t_(GLUCOSE) =0)) then the ratio of 1.1 (t) to I_(W1) (t_(GLUCOSE) =0) would be 150/180=0.833. This ratio is then applied (see block 156 of FIG. 7), to a glucose sensor calibration curve, as shown in FIG. 8C. From such glucose calibration curve it is seen that the ratio of glucose concentration to oxygen concentration, C_(g) (t)/C₀ (t), is about 2.7 mg/dl/mmHg. The previously-determined background oxygen concentration, CO₂ (t), is then multiplied by this ratio (block 158) in order to calculate the measured glucose concentration, C_(g) (t)

As described above, it is thus seen that the present invention provides, within an implantable sensor, a means for automatically verifying the integrity of the sensor on a periodic basis. This is done, in one embodiment, through the use of electrical/electronic circuits included as part of the sensor circuitry which automatically carry out one or more integrity tests on the sensor on a scheduled basis, and which then eventually report any out-of-tolerance conditions and/or other problematic or informational data to appropriate personnel so that needed corrective action, if any, may be taken.

While the invention herein disclosed has been described by means of specific embodiments and applications thereof, numerous modifications and variations could be made thereto by those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the invention set forth in the claims.

APPENDIX A Glucose Calculation Algorithm

1. PURPOSE

The purpose of this document is to describe the algorithms used to calibrate each LTSS glucose sensor and to calculate the glucose concentration based on the data obtained from each sensor.

2. SCOPE

This document describes the algorithms used for calibration and calculation of glucose concentration. The algorithms described here are based on experimental research performed on LTSS glucose sensors.

3. REFERENCES

None

4. DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS

    ______________________________________                                         mg/dl        milligrams per deciliter                                          mmHg         millimeter of mercury                                             atm          atmospheric pressure                                              YSI          Yellow Springs Instrument Co, Inc.                                ______________________________________                                    

5. GLUCOSE CALIBRATION ALGORITHM

5.1. The calibration data is obtained by exposing the sensor to a number of different known oxygen and glucose concentrations and measuring the resulting electrode currents.

5.2. A glucose sensor provides current data from glucose and oxygen electrodes proportional to the glucose and oxygen present in the environment. Once calibration data for a sensor are available, unknown glucose concentration is calculated based on the calibration data and measured electrode currents.

5.3. Introduce sensor to a controlled environment such as the Dynamic Test System with known glucose concentrations in mg/dl designated as GC[n] for n=0, 1, 2, . . . , N. The corresponding oxygen partial pressures are oxy-con[n]. Typically, at least 5 points are used for calibration. By convention, GC[0]=0. The glucose concentration shall be verified using a calibrated glucose measuring device, such as a glucose monitor from YSI.

5.4. Let measured oxygen and glucose currents at the known glucose concentration levels be i₋₋ glu₋₋ cal[n] and i₋₋ oxy₋₋ cal[n] for n=0, 1, 2, . . ., N.

5.5. Let the GC[0] indicate zero glucose concentration condition. The corresponding oxygen and glucose currents from the sensor are then i₋₋ glu₋₋ cal[0] and i₋₋ oxy₋₋ cal[0].

5.6. Calculate partial pressure of oxygen in mmHg based on the known oxygen concentration ##EQU1## where oxy₋₋ con[n] is the controlled oxygen concentration in the test system lab in %, and 710 mmHg is the partial pressure of the combined gases. Typically oxy₋₋ con[0] is 5% resulting in P₋₋ oxy ₋₋ mmHg=35.5 mmHg

5.7. Convert glucose and oxygen currents at zero glucose concentration level and at P₋₋ oxy₋₋ mmHg partial pressure to those at the atmospheric partial pressure. Note that oxygen concentration in atmosphere is 20.9%. ##EQU2## For oxy₋₋ con = 5%, the zero-glucose currents at atmospheric pressure are ##EQU3##

5.8. Calculate sensor calibration data points for points n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , N as ##EQU4## where X[n] is in mg/dl per mmHg. The calibration data is Y[n], Y[n], i₋₋ glu₋₋ atm[0] and i₋₋ oxy₋₋ atm[0].

6. GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION CALCULATION ALGORITHM USING LINEAR INTERPOLATION

6.1 Once the calibration data for a given sensor is known, glucose concentration for any condition is calculated based on the measured glucose and oxygen currents from the sensor. Steps for calculating the glucose concentration are summarized below.

6.2. The calibration data X[n], Y[n], i₋₋ glu₋₋ atm[0], i₋₋ oxy₋₋ atm[0], glucose and oxygen current samples at any condition, i₋₋ glu[m] and i₋₋ oxy[m] for m=0, 1, 2 . . . , M are given.

6.3. Calculate the conversion factor in nA/mmHg for glucose and oxygen eluients based on calibrated zero-glucose data: ##EQU5## where partial pressure of oxygen at atmospheric concentration of 20.9% is defined as P₋₋ oxy₋₋ atm₋₋ mmHg, indicates ##EQU6##

6.4 For a given sample of oxygen current, calculate the oxygen partial pressure using the relationship ##EQU7##

6.5. Calculate the calibrated glucose current at zero-glucose level under the given oxygen partial pressure as

    i.sub.-- glu[0]=i.sub.-- glu.sub.-- FACTOR*P.sub.-- oxy.sub.-- mmHg[m]EQ 2.1

6.6. For any sample of glucose current, i₋₋ glu[m], calculate the normalized current ##EQU8##

6.7. Assuming a linear model, the normalized current and the glucose concentration are related as ##EQU9## where glu con[m] is the unknown glucose concentration in mg/dl at the oxygen partial pressure given by P₋₋ oxy₋₋ mmHg[m] for the normalized sensor current of R[m].

Solving for glu₋₋ con[m] in EQ 2.3, we obtain the following relationship to calculate the glucose concentration at any given sample point: ##EQU10##

6.8. The SLOPE and INTCEPT are calculated based on the calibration data for sample point. Determine two adjacent data points from the calibration curve that the particular sample of R[m] falls in between. If R[m] is beyond the last calibration data point, use extrapolation for n=1, 2, 3, . . . , N and m=1, 2, 3, . . . M,

    Y[n]≦R[m]≦Y[n-1]

Select Y[n], X[n], Y[n-1] and X[n-1] that meet above condition for calculation of the SLOPE and INTERCEPT.

6.9. Use linear interpolation to calculate SLOPE and the INTERCEPT values at any sample point: ##EQU11##

6.10. Finally calculate the glucose concentration using EQ 2.4.

7. SINGLE-POINT CALIBRATION ALGORITHM

7.1. After the initial calibration of a glucose sensor it is necessary to update the calibration data periodically when sensor is implanted in order to obtain more accurate glucose values. The single-point calibration algorithm is based on a single independent measurement of the glucose concentration using a calibrated device. The single-point calibration algorithm is described in this section.

7.2. Let the independently measured glucose concentration value be SG, and the oxygen and glucose currents at the same sampling instant be i₋₋ oxy and i₋₋ glu.

7.3. Using the oxygen current, calculate the partial pressure of oxygen: ##EQU12## where i₋₋ oxy₋₋ atm[0] is the atmospheric partial pressure of oxygen at zero glucose concentration front the previous calibration data.

7.4. Given the ratio of glucose concentration over the oxygen partial pressure for the measured sample point, the normalized glucose current can be calculated using the linear interpolation technique described in the previous section. ##EQU13##

Calculate SLOPE and INTERCEPT as shown in Section 6.9.

7.5. Select the two nearest calibration data points such that ##EQU14##

Select Y[n], X[n], Y[n-1] and X[n-1] that meet above condition for calculation of INTERCEPT and SLOPE.

7.6. Calculate the estimated glucose current at zero-glucose concentration level at the given oxygen partial pressure. ##EQU15##

Use this updated value for all subsequent glucose calculations.

8. TEMPERATURE COMPENSATED GLUCOSE CALIBRATION ALGORITHM

8.1. This algorithm calculates the glucose calibration data at a specific temperature based on two sets of calibration data each at a different temperature. The calibration data at the desired temperature is calculated using linear interpolation of the two sets of the calibration data. Note that this is an investigational algorithm which gives reasonably good results when the glucose concentration and oxygen partial pressure for the two sets differ slightly.

8.2. Let the calibration data as defined in Section 5.6 at temperature T1 be

    X.sub.T1 [n], Y.sub.T1 [n], i.sub.-- glu.sub.-- atm.sub.T1 [0] and .sub.-- oxy.sub.-- atm.sub.T1 [0]                                 EQ 3.1

and the calibration data at temperature T2 be

    X.sub.T2, [n], Y.sub.T2 [n], i.sub.-- glu.sub.-- atm.sub.T2 [0] and i.sub.-- oxy.sub.-- atm.sub.T2[ 0]                        EQ 3.2

where T2>T1. 8.3. Calculate the calibration data at temperature T, where T1<T<T2, as ##EQU16## 

What is claimed is:
 1. An electrochemical sensor having an hermetically sealed portion and a non-hermetically sealed portion, the hermetically sealed portion containing electronic circuitry, the non-hermetically sealed portion having at least one electrode associated therewith, the electronic circuitry comprising means for measuring a specified parameter within body fluids or tissue to which the at least one electrode is exposed, and means for performing at least one integrity test to verify proper operation of the sensor.
 2. The electrochemical sensor of claim 1 wherein said means for performing at least one integrity test comprises means for automatically performing the at least one integrity test upon occurrence of a specified event.
 3. The electrochemical sensor of claim 2 wherein the specified event comprises the passage of time in accordance with a predefined schedule, whereby the at least one integrity test is automatically performed in accordance with the predefined schedule.
 4. The electrochemical sensor of claim 2 wherein the specified event comprises the measurement of a parameter that falls outside of predefined limits, whereby the at least one integrity test is automatically performed whenever a parameter measurement indicates the parameter is not within the predefined limits.
 5. The electrochemical sensor of claim 2 wherein said at least one integrity test comprises performing an electrical measurement between the at least one electrode and another reference point within said sensor.
 6. The electrochencial sensor of claim 2 wherein the electrical measurement performed by the at least one integrity test comprises making an impedance measurement between the at least one electrode and reference point.
 7. The electrochemical sensor of claim 1 wherein said sensor comprises an implantable glucose sensor having a plurality of electrodes associated with its non-hermetically sealed portion, wherein said plurality of electrodes comprise a first working electrode, a second working electrode, a reference electrode and a counter electrode.
 8. The electrochemical sensor of claim 7 wherein the at least one integrity test comprises measuring the resistance between the first working electrode and second working electrode, and wherein said resistance measurement should be approximately 1000 ohms ±50% when the sensor is functioning properly within its implantable environment.
 9. The electrochemical sensor of claim 7 wherein the at least one integrity test comprises measuring the voltage potential between the reference electrode and the counter electrode and determining if such voltage potential has changed more than about 40% since a previous measurement of the voltage potential.
 10. The electrochemical sensor of claim 7 wherein said at least one integrity test comprises measuring an electrical current that flows between one of the first or second working electrodes and the counter electrode while maintaining the reference electrode at first and second reference potentials, thereby obtaining two points on a voltage-current curve, and determining if the slope of the voltage-current curve is within a prescribed degree of flatness.
 11. The electrochemical sensor of claim 10 wherein the first and second reference potentials at which the reference electrode is maintained are centered about 0.5 volts, with the first reference potential comprising 0.5 volts minus Vx, and the second reference potential comprising 0.5 volts plus Vx, where Vx is a voltage ranging from about 0.05 volts to 0.20 volts.
 12. The electrochemical sensor of claim 1 wherein at least three of said electrochemical sensors are implanted within the same body fluids or tissue location in close proximity to each other, and wherein said at least one integrity test comprises independently measuring the specified parameter with each of said implantable sensors and comparing the results of said independent measurements to determine if all of the measurements are within about 20% of each other. 